MINISTRY OF
HEALTH
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|
SOCIALIST
REPUBLIC OF VIETNAM
Independence - Freedom - Happiness
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|
No. 3875/QD-BYT
|
Hanoi,
September 07, 2020
|
DECISION
PROMULGATING INTERIM GUIDELINES FOR DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT
OF BOTULISM POISONING
MINISTER OF HEALTH
Pursuant to the Government’s Decree
No.75/2017/ND-CP dated June 20, 2017 on functions, duties, powers and
organizational structure of the Ministry of Health;
At the request of Bach Mai Hospital in
Official Dispatch No. 1059/BVBM-KHTH dated 04/9/2020 regarding formulation of
guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of botulism poisoning;
At the request of the Head of the Medical
Services Administration - Ministry of Health,
HEREBY DECIDES:
Article 1. Promulgated together with this Decision are the interim
guidelines for diagnosis and treatment of botulism poisoning.
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Article 3. This Decision takes effect from the date on which it is
signed.
Article 4. Head of the Medical Services Administration, Chief of the
Ministry Office, Chief Inspector of the Ministry of Health; heads of affiliates
of the Ministry of Health; directors of hospitals and institutes with hospital
beds affiliated to the Ministry of Health; directors of Departments of Health;
heads of health units of other ministries and central authorities; and heads of
relevant units shall implement this Decision./.
P.P. THE
MINISTER
THE DEPUTY MINISTER
Nguyen Truong Son
INTERIM GUIDELINES
DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF BOTULISM POISONING
(Enclosed with Decision No. 3875/QD-BYT dated September 07, 2020 by the
Minister of Health)
I. OVERVIEW
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Main picture includes descending, symmetric
neuropathy, paralysis of all muscles at various levels, no loss of sensory
functions or awareness. Severe poisoning leads to respiratory paralysis,
respiratory failure, which can be fatal. Persistent, severe paralysis results
in many complications.
Poisoning does not occur frequently and may
occur as one event with multiple victims. There are also individual cases with
unclear epidemiological factors, rapid progression and/or lack of
characteristic signs, causing the physician to overlook botulism or mistake it
for another disease.
Healthcare workers need to raise their awareness,
investigate the patient’s medical history and make special differential
diagnosis of neuropathy to facilitate early diagnosis and treatment and
administer antitoxins as soon as possible to mitigate toxic effects.
These guidelines are not applicable to wound
botulism, infant botulism, adult intestinal toxemia botulism and inhalation
botulism.
2. CAUSES
a) Toxin-producing bacteria
- Clostridium bacteria
producing the botulinum toxins are divided into the following 4 strains:
+ (1) Clostridium botulinum, which
produce botulinum toxins of types A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
+ (2) C. baratii, which produce
botulinum toxins of type F.
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+ (4) C. argentinense, which produce
botulinum toxins of type G.
- These are Gram-positive, rod-shaped,
anaerobic, spore-forming bacteria. Their spores are found in the earth, air,
seawater and seafood intestine, and can survive at 100°C and 1 atm pressure for
several hours.
b) Toxins
- Only botulinum exotoxins of types A, B,
E and F cause human botulism. Botulinum toxin is a protein of approximately 150
thousand Dalton that is easily destroyed by boiling (poisoning can be prevented
by eating cooked food).
- A patient can be poisoned by one or more
than one type of toxin.
c) Sources of foodborne botulism
- The original source is canned meat.
However, botulism cases around the world show that botulinum spores can grow
into bacteria and excrete exotoxins in all vegetables, meat, seafood, etc. that
are improperly produced and kept in unsafe tightly sealed containers (e.g.,
cans, bottles, jars, bags).
- One common source includes food that is
processed and packaged manually, on a small scale or in unqualified production
establishments. The bacteria can also be found in manufactured food and food in
restaurants.
- Foodborne botulism is on the rise around
the globe due to the vacuum packing trend, unsafe food preservation, improper
refrigeration use and lack of pre-consumption boiling.
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d) Toxicokinetics and toxicology
- Botulinum toxins are not destroyed by
gastric acid and digestive enzymes, and mainly absorbed from the duodenum and
jejunum into the blood. Their target organs are the cholinergic synapses in the
peripheral nervous system, parasympathetic nerve endings and glands, and inside
nerve cells. Absorption, metabolism and elimination of these toxins are
unclear.
- Mechanism of action: botulinum binds to
the presynaptic axon terminal irreversibly, cutting important protein
structures at the axon terminal membrane and membranes of acetylcholine
vesicles, preventing the release of acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft and
in parasympathetic and cholinergic postganglionic sympathetic neurons. The affected
synapses might need to regrow their axons and form new synapses to recover. The
central nervous system and sensory nervous system are unaffected.
- Lethal dose: a 0,09 mcg intravenous
injection can kill a 70kg person.
3. DIAGNOSIS
3.1. Diagnosis
a) Food causing suspicion: the
abovementioned types of food, uncooked food or cooked food left for long.
b) Epidemiological factors: at least 2
persons developing the same manifestation(s) after consuming the same food.
There might be individual cases occurring at different locations.
c) Onset: usually 12-36 hours after food
consumption, mostly in the first day, approximately 6 hours to 8 days after
food consumption.
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* Vital signs: no fever (unless due to
other causes), blood pressure might drop while heart rate tends to not
increase.
* Gastrointestinal symptoms: nausea,
vomiting, abdominal distension and/or stomach cramps develop early, before
paralytic ileus, constipation.
* Neurological symptoms:
- Symmetric paralysis, starting from the
head and neck to the legs: from the cranial nerves (ptosis, diplopia, blurred
vision, throat pain, speaking difficulty, swallowing difficulty, hoarse voice,
dry mouth), And then arm paralysis, paralysis of chest and abdominal muscles
and leg paralysis.
- Decrease in or loss of stretch reflexes.
- Lucidity.
- Possible dilation of both pupils.
- No sensory disturbances.
- Paralysis level: from mild (fatigue,
muscle fatigue similar to asthenia, inability to perform normal effortful
tasks) to severe (sputum build-up, haemoptysis, easily choking,
respiratory failure). The patient may develop paralysis of all muscles and
dilation of both pupils and require breathing support, which can be mistaken
for coma or vegetative state (the patient is actually awake unless there is
lack of oxygen to the brain).
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- Atypical picture (accounting for 7%):
hemiparesis or ascending paralysis.
*Respiratory symptoms: possible
respiratory failure, sputum build-up, haemoptysis, breathing difficulty, rapid
shallow breathing due to paralysis of the intercostal muscles, diaphragm.
* Urology symptoms: urinary retention,
distended bladder
e) Paraclinical
* Regular laboratory and functional tests:
- Blood tests: complete blood count, urea,
sugar, creatinine, bilirubin, electrolyte panel (Na,
K, Cl, Ca), GOT, GPT, CPK.
- Arterial blood gas to assess respiratory
failure.
- Urine: protein, erythrocyte, leukocyte.
- ECG.
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- Laboratory and functional tests for
differential diagnosis: brain CT scans, cranial MRI scans, cerebrospinal fluid
analysis, etc.
* Electrophysiology study: performed upon
appearance of muscle weakness or paralysis for clinical diagnosis, even when it
is late.
- Normal sensory nerve action potential.
- Stark decline in electric potential but
nerve conduction velocity remains unaffected.
- High frequency repetitive nerve
stimulation leads to limited increase in evoked electric potential amplitudes
(high increase is present in Lambert-Eaton syndrome; decrease in amplitudes
upon low frequency repetitive nerve stimulation is present in myasthenia
gravis).
- Electromyography: characteristic signs
include decrease in amplitudes and shortening of the duration of action
potential in motor units due to blockade of intrafusal muscle fibres. There is
also the multi-phase phenomenon in action potential in motor units.
- Spontaneous activities, positive sharp
waves or fibrillation potentials are usually present.
- In botulism, there is no increase in
evoked electric potential amplitudes upon repetitive stimulation of small
muscle groups with increasing frequency.
* Tests for bacteria and toxins
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+ In case a sample cannot be sent yet, collect,
retain and send it to a qualified laboratory.
+ Samples include samples of the food causing
suspicion, vomit, gastric lavage, intestinal fluids (if the patient has just
consumed food; intestinal fluids shall be obtained via autopsy), stool (the
bacteria are still present when the patient arrives late), isolated colonies of
Clostridium strains. Patients usually experience constipation and
might require laxatives or enema to obtain their stool.
+ Ensure safety when coming into contact with
samples: as the botulinum toxin is highly poisonous, ensure safety when
collecting, retaining, transporting and handling samples. The samples need to
be kept in the refrigerator.
- Culture to identify the disease-causing Clostridium strain:
anaerobic culture.
- Botulinum toxin detection:
+ Notes for blood samples:
√ As
the toxin concentration is low, perform confirmatory testing early, highest
chance of positive test result is within 1-2 days after consumption of
contaminated food. Toxin survival time: for type A toxin, after absorbed into
the bloodstream, it will quickly move to target destinations, leading to high
chance of negative test result; for types B and E toxins, if antitoxin is not
administered, they can survive in the bloodstream for 10-20 days after food
consumption.
√ Collect
and keep 10ml of blood prior to antitoxin administration (the antitoxin will
neutralize free toxin) and prior to edrophonium injection (if planning to
perform a Tensilon test, as edrophonium or drugs in the same class can be
toxic to mice when testing the toxin on mice).
+ Toxin detection methods: choose from the
following methods depending on each laboratory’s capacity:
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√ Testing
on mice (using serum sample, sensitive, can detect toxin with a concentration
of 5-10 pg/ml, yield result in 3-5 days).
√ Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis
in combination with randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis.
√ ELISA
test.
* Make a diagnosis based on:
- Typical clinical picture after
eliminating other diseases (see differential diagnosis), or:
- Clinical picture in combination with
positive test result for botulinum toxin or C. botulinum, C. baratii,
C. butyricum, or C. Argentinense bacteria in a sample (food causing suspicion,
vomit, gastric lavage, intestinal fluids, feces, blood), or:
- Typical clinical picture and
epidemiological relevance to a confirmed case of foodborne botulism.
3.2. Differential diagnosis:
Below is a table presenting differential
diagnosis of foodborne botulism and other diseases.
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Table 1:
Differential diagnosis of foodborne botulism and other diseases
No.
Type of
poisoning
Differential
diagnostic characteristics
1
Tetrodotoxin poisoning (puffer fish,
blue-ringed octopus, some sea snails and clams)
- These are the types of food known for
their toxins.
- Usually rapid onset, within hours after
consumption, possibly tens of minutes after consumption
- Even cooked food is poisonous
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- Ascending paralysis (starting from the
legs)
- Possible convulsions, arrhythmia
- Patient recovers from paralysis
quickly, recovers from paralysis completely after a few days
2
Bitten by a krait
- Rarely related to food consumption
- Krait encountering locations: walking
near fresh water (paddy fields, lakes, canals, before or after the rain),
sleeping on the ground
- Increased pain on skin (pain upon light
touch), possible numbness at bite site
- Usually hyponatremia, increased sodium
urine level
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- Patient recovers from paralysis quickly
after administered an antivenom against venom of the kraits
- Patient might develop paralysis of all
muscles at the beginning but the condition improves gradually and the patient
can move properly after from 2 weeks to 1 month
3
Diphtheria
- Exudative pharyngitis, paralysis of cranial
nerves, cardiac manifestations, hypotension
Other diseases
4
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- Patient has lung cancer, usually small
cell type
- Limb paralysis is more common than
ophthalmoplegia
- Increase in muscular strength upon
repetitive exercise
- Differentiated based on electrical
activity in the muscle
5
Guillain- Barre syndrome
- Loss of stretch reflexes, numbness,
ataxia
- Separation of proteins of cerebrospinal
fluid
- Decrease in electrical activity in the
muscle, nerve conduction velocity
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Myasthenia gravis
- Increased fatigue upon exercise
- Fluctuating muscle weakness
- Clear response to edrophonium
- Rapid and repeated electrical
stimulation of muscles shows gradual decrease in action potential amplitude
7
Acute porphyrias
- Paralysis usually accompanied by
sensory disturbances (numbness, limb dysesthesia)
- Possible symptoms of nervous system
disorders: irritability, anxiety, hallucinations, convulsions, impaired
consciousness
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- Increase in delta-aminolevulinic acid,
especially porphobilinogen (urinary porphobilinogen is higher than
mg/day).
8
Stroke
- Sudden onset
- Usually include hemiplegia
- Brain CT or MRI scans show haemorrhage
or infarction
9
Encephalitis
- Fever, impaired consciousness, convulsions
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- Skull MRI scans show injury
4. HANDLING
4.1. Rules
- Provide emergency aid and CPR are the
main handling measures: detect respiratory paralysis early on, manage the
airway, put the patient on breathing support and detect accompanying respiratory
problems.
- Administer the specific antitoxin as soon
as possible upon indication.
- Report to regulatory bodies for
cooperation in handling.
4.2. Specific measures
4.2.1. Patient receipt
a) Clear poisoning symptoms (clear muscle
weakness, paralysis), regardless of the food source and time of consumption: admit
the patient.
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* More than 8 days have passed since the last
time the patient consumes the food
- The patient shows no symptoms: they are
not poisoned.
- The patient develops mild symptoms
(fatigue, asthenia): hospitalize the patient if the symptoms worsen; if the
patient’s condition is stable or is gradually improving, release the patient
into the care of grassroots health units after a full assessment.
* Within 8 days after the last time the
patient consumes the food: admit the patient for assessment and monitoring
if they develop symptoms. Allow the patient to go home and prescribe activated
charcoal and laxatives for them if they have no symptoms, provide instructions
on monitoring at home and visiting the nearest healthcare establishment for
examination (after a full assessment).
4.2.2. Detoxification
- Induce vomiting: if the patient has just
consumed the food causing suspicion.
- Administer activated charcoal: most
patients arrive at the hospital late, however, activated charcoal is
recommended as the toxins as well as the bacteria can survive in the
gastrointestinal tract for many hours to many days later. Administer a dose of
1g/kg in combination with a dose of sorbitol equivalent to that of activated
charcoal used.
4.2.3. Symptom treatment
The patient requires close monitoring,
especially paralysis and respiratory monitoring.
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- Pharyngeal paralysis, haemoptysis, sputum
build-up: collect sputum, let patient lie on their side and feed via a feeding
tube. Intubate the patient early on to protect their airway.
- Respiratory failure: intubate the patient
and put them on a ventilator.
- Resuscitate and put the patient on a
ventilator similar to how patients with a neuromuscular disease are handled.
- Make preparation for long-term
ventilation.
b) Gastrointestinal symptoms
- The patient usually experiences decrease
in bowel movements, paralytic ileus while botulinum spores are present in the
gastrointestinal tract.
- Closely monitor the patient’s bowel
movements, digestion, defecation and blood potassium.
- Increase blood potassium in case of low
blood potassium.
- Metoclopramide:
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+ Children: 0,1mg/kg/time, 3 times/day,
intravenous injection.
- Constipation treatment: can use
sorbitol: 1g/kg, oral administration, discontinue if diarrhea occurs.
- For pediatric and elderly patients
consuming food contaminated with the toxin while using antibiotics (risk of
spores growing in the gastrointestinal tract): should administer digestive
enzymes.
- Diet: increase fiber.
- Bowel movement stimulation measures:
increase passive exercise, physical therapy, abdominal massaging.
c) Complication prevention and treatment
- Hospital-acquired infection
- Prevent ulcers, maintain patient’s
personal hygiene
4.2.4. Antitoxins
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- The antitoxin is an orphan drug and its
preparations are available in limited quantity under orphan drug programs of
other countries. One preparation frequently mentioned in recent documents and
currently prioritized is Botulism Antitoxin Heptavalent (made from horses,
containing F(ab')2 antibody fragments effective against
botulinum toxins of types A, B, C, D, E, F, and G).
a) Indication
- The antitoxin is indicated for foodborne
botulism with clear symptoms and should be given as soon as possible,
preferably before the symptoms worsen; however, the antitoxin can be indicated
for any stage of poisoning during which the patient is in serious condition.
- Administer the antitoxin without waiting
for toxin testing or culturing results.
b) Caution: especially for those allergic
to equine biologicals (obtain patient’s allergy history). Persons with
allergies (asthma, past allergies, hives, prurigo, dermatitis, allergic
rhinitis).
c) Dose and use
- Can give corticosteroid first to prevent
allergic reactions.
- Persons of at least 17 years of age: 1
vial, regardless of the patient’s weight, dilute with 0,9% sodium chloride at a
ratio of 1:10, administer via the intravenous route: initial velocity at
0,5ml/minute, double the velocity every 30 minutes if nothing is amiss but keep
the velocity under 2ml/minute.
- Persons from 1 to 16 years of age:
calculate the dose based on the patient's weight and as a percentage of the
adult dose (1 vial). Dilute the whole vial as abovementioned, and then give a
dose calculated based on the patient’s weight. Specific dosage is provided for
in the following table:
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Patient’s
weight (kg)
Percentage of
adult dose (%)
10- 14
20
15 – 19
30
20 – 24
40
25 – 29
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30 – 34
60
35 – 39
65
40 – 44
70
45 – 49
75
50 – 54
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≥55
100
- Children under 1 year of age: 10% of adult
dose, equivalent to 10% of 1 vial. Dilute as abovementioned, initial IV
velocity at 0,01ml/kg/minute, increase by 0,01ml/kg/minute every 30 minutes if
nothing is amiss, keep maximum velocity at 0,03ml/kg/minute.
4.2.5. Cooperation with regulatory bodies
Notify regulatory bodies immediately (preventive
medicine authorities, food safety authorities, local health authorities, etc.)
upon receipt of a patient suspected of foodborne botulism.
5. PROGNOSIS AND
COMPLICATIONS
a) Prognosis
Foodborne botulism is a serious and highly fatal
type of poisoning with prolonged paralysis. Average duration of mechanical
ventilation prior to ventilator withdrawal is 2 months; however, patients
require months to recover.
b) Complications: main complications:
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- Complications arising from prolonged
immobilization and bed rest, ulcers.
- Paralytic ileus, constipation,
gastroesophageal reflux disease, pulmonary aspiration.
6. PREVENTION
- For regulatory bodies: increase food
safety inspection.
- For people:
+ Choose products from reliable sources and of
recognized quality and safety.
+ Be careful with food packaged in the
abovementioned forms that has an abnormal smell, color or taste (e.g., yogurt
that does not taste as sour as it is supposed to).
+ Avoid self-packaging food and keeping food for
a long time using a non-freezing method (only freezing can stop bacterial
growth and toxin production).
+ Prioritize recently processed and cooked food.
Note that proper cooking can destroy the botulinum toxin (if it is
unfortunately present in the food).
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